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The history of sandpaper and how it is made

admin — Fri, 29 Jan 2010 10:43:34 +0000

History
The first recorded instance of sandpaper was in 13th century China when crushed shells, seeds, and sand were bonded to parchment using natural gum.
Shark skin was also used as a sandpaper. The rough scales of the living fossil Coelacanth are used by the natives of Comoros as sandpaper.[citation needed]
Sandpaper was originally known as glass paper, as it used particles of glass. Glass frit has sharp-edged particles and cuts well, sand grains are smoothed down and did not work as well as glass. Cheap counterfeit sandpaper has long been passed off as true glass paper; Stalker and Parker cautioned against it as far back as the 17th century.[1]
Glass paper was manufactured by John Oakey’s company in London by 1833, who had developed new adhesive techniques and processes that could be mass-produced. A process for making sandpaper was patented in the United States on June 14, 1834 by Isaac Fischer, Jr., of Springfield, Vermont.

In 1916, 3M invented a type of sandpaper with a waterproof backing, known as Wetordry. This allowed use with water as a lubricant, and to carry about particles that would otherwise clog the finest grades. Its first application was for automotive paint refinishing.
Sandpaper has occasionally been used as a surface for painting, as by Joan Miró. Sandpaper was even used as a musical instrument, in Leroy Anderson’s Sandpaper Ballet.
Boiled and dried, the rough horsetail is used in Japan as a traditional polishing material, finer than sandpaper.

Types of sandpaper.
There are countless varieties of sandpaper, with variations in the paper or backing, the material used for the grit, grit size, and the bond.

Backing
In addition to paper, backing for sandpaper includes cloth (cotton, polyester, rayon), PET film, and “fibre” ,or rubber. Cloth backing is used for sandpaper discs and belts, while mylar is used as backing with extremely fine grits. Fibre or vulcanized fibre is a strong backing material consisting of many layers of polymer impregnated paper. The weight of the backing is usually designated by a letter. For paper backings, the weight ratings range from “A” to “F,” with A designating the lightest and F the heaviest. Letter nomenclature follows a different system for cloth backings, with the weight of the backing rated J, X, Y , T, and M, from lightest to heaviest. A flexible backing allows sandpaper to follow irregular rounded contours of a given workpiece; relatively inflexible backing is optimal for regular rounded or plane surfaces. Sandpaper backings may be glued to the paper or form a separate support structure for moving sandpaper, such as used in sanding belts and discs. Stronger paper or backing increases the ease of sanding wood, so decent quality sand paper is much better than low cost and low quality sandpaper. The harder the backing material is behind the sandpaper, the faster the sanding, the faster the wear of the paper and the rougher the sanded surface.

Material
Materials used for the abrading particles are:

flint: no longer commonly used
garnet: commonly used in woodworking
emery: commonly used to abrade or polish metal
aluminium oxide: perhaps most common in widest variety of grits; can be used on metal (i.e. body shops) or wood
silicon carbide: available in very coarse grits all the way through to microgrits, common in wet applications
alumina-zirconia: (an aluminium oxide–zirconium oxide alloy), used for machine grinding applications
chromium oxide: used in extremely fine micron grit (micrometre level) papers
ceramic aluminum oxide: used in high pressure applications, used in both coated abrasives, as well as in bonded abrasives.

As well, sandpaper may be “stearated” where a dry lubricant is loaded to the abrasive. Stearated papers are useful in sanding coats of finish and paint as the stearate “soap” prevents clogging and increases the useful life of the sandpaper. Aluminium Oxide with stearate is also known as PS33, a Klingspor Abrasives product. The harder the grit material, the easier the sanding of surfaces like wood. The grit material for polishng granite slab has to be harder than granite.
Innovative abrading surfaces now include long-life stainless steel sanding discs.

Bonds
Different adhesives are used to bond the abrasive to the paper. Hide glue is still used, but this paper often cannot withstand the heat generated when machine sanding and is not waterproof. Waterproof or wet/dry sandpapers use a resin bond and a waterproof backing.
Sandpapers can also be open coat, where the particles are separated from each other and the sandpaper is more flexible. This helps prevent clogging of the sandpaper. The wet and dry sandpaper is best used when wet and when using material like acrylic where it leaves a nice smooth feel afterwards.

Shapes
Sandpaper comes in a number of different shapes and sizes.

sheet: usually 9 by 11 inches, but other sizes may be available
belt: usually cloth backed, comes in different sizes to fit different belt sanders.
disk: made to fit different models of disc and random orbit sanders. May be perforated for some models of sanders. Attachment includes Pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) and “hook-and-loop” (similar to velcro).
rolls: known as “Shag Rolls” by many contractors

Grit sizes
Grit size refers to the size of the particles of abrading materials embedded in the sandpaper. A number of different standards have been established for grit size. These standards establish not only the average grit size, but also the allowable variation from the average. The two most common are the United States CAMI (Coated Abrasive Manufacturers Institute, now part of the Unified Abrasives Manufacturers’ Association) and the European FEPA (Federation of European Producers of Abrasives) “P” grade. The FEPA system is the same as the ISO 6344 standard. Other systems used in sandpaper include the Japan Industrial Standards Committee (JIS), the micron grade (generally used for very fine grits). The “ought” system was used in the past in the United States. Also, cheaper sandpapers sometimes are sold with nomenclature such as “Coarse”, “Medium” and “Fine”, but it is not clear to what standards these names refer.

Grit size table
The following table, compiled from the references at the bottom, compares the CAMI and “P” designations with the average grit size in micrometres (µm).
Grit size table
ISO/FEPA Grit designation CAMI Grit designation Average particle diameter (µm)
MACROGRITS
Extra Coarse (Very fast removal of material, hardwood flooring initial sanding) P12 1815
P16 1324
P20 1000
P24 764
24 708
P30 642
30 632
36 530
P36 538
Coarse (Rapid removal of material) P40 40 425
50 348
P50 336
Medium (sanding bare wood in preparation for finishing, for gentle removal of varnish) 60 265
P60 269
P80 201
80 190
Fine (sanding bare wood in preparation for finishing, not suitable for removing varnish or paint from wood, use for cleaning plaster and water stain from wood) P100 162
100 140
P120 125
120 115
Very Fine (sanding of bare wood) P150 100
150 92
P180 180 82
P220 220 68
MICROGRITS
Very Fine (sanding finishes between coats) P240 58.5
240 53.0
P280 52.2
P320 46.2
P360 40.5
Extra fine, start polishing

AKKA Paris Leather Headboard. How is leather made

admin — Sat, 16 Jan 2010 22:59:43 +0000

Leather is a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide. It can be produced through different manufacturing processes, ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry.
The leather and the fur industries are differentiated by the manufacturing importance of the raw materials used to make the wares. In the leather industry, the skin and rawhide are by-products of the meat industry, because the meat has greater commercial value than the rawhide and skin. In the fur industry, the meat is a by-product, because the skins and hides have greater commercial value. Moreover, in taxidermy, the raw materials usually are only the animal’s head and back; hide and skin also are the raw materials for manufacturing animal glue and gelatin.
Forms of leather
Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather:
• Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannin and other ingredients found in vegetable matter, tree bark, and other such sources. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and the color of the skin. It is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry it will shrink and become less supple and harder. In hot water, it will shrink drastically and partly gelatinize, becoming rigid and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, or in boiled wax or similar substances. Historically, it was occasionally used as armor after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding.
• Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and other salts of chromium. It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather, and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium. More esoteric colors are possible using chrome tanning.
• Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds. This is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the main type of “chrome-free” leather, often seen in shoes for infants, and automobiles. Formaldehyde tanning (being phased out due to its danger to workers and the sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde) is another method of aldehyde tanning. Brain-tanned leathers fall into this category and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a labor-intensive process which uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains. They are known for their exceptional softness and their ability to be washed. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning and like brain tanning produces a highly water absorbent leather. Chamois leather is made by using oils (traditionally cod oil) that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to make the fabric the color it is.
• Synthetic-tanned leather is tanned using aromatic polymers such as the Novolac or Neradol types. This leather is white in color and was invented when vegetable tannins were in short supply during the Second World War. Melamine and other amino-functional resins fall into this category as well and they provide the filling that modern leathers often require. Urea-formaldehyde resins were also used in this tanning method until dissatisfaction about the formation of free formaldehyde was realized.
• Alum-tawed leather is transformed using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour and egg yolk. Purists argue that alum-tawed leather is technically not tanned, as the resulting material will rot in water. Very light shades of leather are possible using this process, but the resulting material is not as supple as vegetable-tanned leather.[1]
• Rawhide is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while it dries. Like alum-tawing, rawhide is not technically “leather”, but is usually lumped in with the other forms. Rawhide is stiffer and more brittle than other forms of leather, and is primarily found in uses such as drum heads where it does not need to flex significantly; it is also cut up into cords for use in lacing or stitching, or for making many varieties of dog chews.
Leather—usually vegetable-tanned leather—can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neatsfoot oil or a similar material, keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically.
Leather with the hair still attached is called hair-on.

History of the bed

admin — Mon, 14 Dec 2009 12:12:30 +0000

• 10,000 years ago, in the Neolithic period, people began sleeping on primitive “beds.”
• 3400 BCE. Egyptian pharaohs discover the benefits of raising a pallet off the earth. King Tutankahmen had a bed of ebony and gold. Common people slept on palm bows heaped in the corner of their home.
• Roman Empire. First luxury bed. Often decorated with gold, silver or bronze, these beds featured mattresses stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers.
• Roman Empire. Romans discover the waterbed. The sleeper would recline in a cradle of warm water until drowsy, then be lifted onto an adjacent cradle with a mattress, where they would be rocked to sleep.
• Renaissance. Mattresses were made of pea shucks or straw, sometimes feathers, stuffed into coarse ticks, then covered with sumptuous velvets, brocades and silks.
•
Louis XIV was inordinately fond of staying in bed, often holding court in the royal bedroom. Reportedly, he owned 413 beds and displayed a special liking for the ultra spacious and ostentatious variety.
• 16th and 17th centuries. Mattresses were generally stuffed with straw or down, placed atop a latticework of rope.
• The late 18th century. Advent of the cast iron bed and cotton mattresses. Together, they provided a sleeping space that was less attractive to bugs. Until that time, assorted vermin were simply accepted as an accepted component of even the most royal beds.
• 1865. The first coil spring construction for bedding was patented.
• 1930’s. Innerspring mattresses and upholstered foundations became serious contenders for the dominant position they now enjoy in the U.S. and Canada.
• 1940’s. Futons introduced to North America.
• 1950’s. Foam rubber mattresses and pillows appeared on the market.
•
The expression “sleep tight” comes from the 16th and 17th centuries when mattresses were placed on top of ropes that needed regular tightening.
• 1960’s. Modern waterbed introduced. Adjustable beds become popular with consumers.
• 1980’s. Airbeds introduced.
• 1990’s. Spacious sleeping is once again on the rise. In 1999, the queen-size mattress became America’s most popular choice for mattress size – for the first time ever – beating the twin.
• 2000’s. Choice and comfort are key words in contemporary bedding. In addition to an almost unlimited range of innerspring mattress designs, new types of foam mattress cores (such as “memory” or visco-elastic foam and refinements to traditional latex) as well as airbeds, waterbeds and high-tech adjustable sleep sets offer consumers attractive, quality alternatives. Pillowtop mattresses, a popular innovation in luxury, offer an extra layer of soft cushioning, and single-sided no-flip mattresses are common.

Wood Veneers

admin — Wed, 09 Dec 2009 16:18:58 +0000

Producing wood veneers
The finest and rarest logs are sent to companies that produce veneer. The advantage to this practice is two fold. First, it provides the most financial gain to the owner of the log.[citation needed] Secondly, and of more importance to the woodworker, is this practice greatly expands the amount of usable wood. While a log used for solid lumber is cut into thick pieces, usually no less than 1 1/8 inches, veneers are cut as thin as 1/40 of an inch. Depending on the cutting process used by the veneer manufacture, very little wood is wasted by the saw blade thickness, known as the saw kerf. Therefore, the yield of a rare grain pattern or wood type is greatly increased, which in turn places less stress on the resource. Some maunfacturers even use a very wide knife to basically “slice off” the thin veneer pieces. In this way, none of the wood is wasted. The slices of veneer are always kept in the order in which they are cut from the tree, and are known as flitches.
Types of veneers
There are a few types of veneers available and each serves a purpose.
• A: Raw veneer has no backing on it and can be used with either side facing up. It is important to note that the two sides will appear different when a finish has been applied, due to the cell structure of the wood.
• B: Paper Backed veneer is as the name suggests, veneers that are backed with a paper. The advantage to this is it is available in large sizes, or sheets, as smaller pieces are joined together prior to adding the backing. This is helpful for users that do not wish to join smaller pieces of raw veneers together. This is also helpful when veneering curves and columns as the veneer is less likely to crack.
• C: Phenolic Backed veneer is less common and is used for composite, or man made wood veneers. Due to concern for the natural resource, this is becoming more popular. It too has the advantage of being available in sheets, and is also less likely to crack when being used on curves.
• D: Laid Up veneer is raw veneer, which has been joined together to make larger pieces. The process is time consuming and requires great care, but is not difficult, and requires no expensive tools or machinery. Veneers can be ordered through some companies already laid up to any size, shape or design.
Patterns
There are a number of “patterns” common to veneered work. This refers to the way the veneers are laid up.
• A: Book Matched: where the veneers are opened from the flitch much like the pages of a book.
• B: Slip Matched: where the pieces are joined together in the order they come from the flitch, and have the same face kept up.
• C: Radial Matched: where the veneer is cut into wedge shaped pieces and joined together.
• D: Diamond Matched: where the pattern formed is diamond shaped.
Advantages of using veneers
In addition to the obvious savings of our natural resources, many projects built using wood veneer would not be possible to construct using solid lumber. Due to expansion and contraction common to all wood products and caused by changes in humidity, many of the patterns and designs possible with veneers would self destruct, if attempted with solid lumber. The limitless designs done with marquetry and parquetry would also be impossible.

American Black Walnut

admin — Thu, 03 Dec 2009 22:49:20 +0000

Uses:
Walunut lumber is used for fine furniture, architectural woodwork, musical instruments, decorative panels, interior trim, and flooring. Large amounts are also used for veneer. Its stability and shock resistance make it the wood of choice for gun stocks. Many customers appreciate its “easy of use” and beautiful colours to use as a craft wood in all their small turning and scrollsaw projects. The fact that it is the only dark North American wood, has added to its reputation.

The Tree: Juglandaceae family
The black walnut’s specific name is J.nigra. The black walnut is sometimes called eastern or American black walnut. There are about twenty species of walnut with six found in the U.S.A. Black walnuts were once abundant in old growth forests with trees reaching 150 feet with six-foot diameter trunks. Today’s trees are generally 80-100 feet tall with trunks of less than three feet.

The black walnut has one “bad habit” however in that it can poison neighbouring trees and shrubs with a substance called juglone in its roots. This is its way of protecting its territory and assuring its access to good sunlight necessary for its growth.

It typically grows in a mixed hardwoods forest, with light coverage.

Wood Description:
The sapwood is creamy white and may be three inches wide. Heartwood is a rich chocolate or purplish brown in colour, with a dull sheen. Black walnut is normally straight grained and is noted for its beautiful grain character, producing more figure variation than any other wood. Over the years the wood develops a lustrous patina. It is the only dark brown domestic species, so it has a large following of devoted woodworkers, that enjoy its rich colour and ease of use..

link to short walnut craft wood panels for sale–>

Weight: approx. 36-38 lbs. per cubic foot

Finishing:
Walnut takes any finish and most complement the lovely satin sheen of the wood. It polishes well. Rarely do you find sap pockets that cause difficulty.

Machining:
Walnut works easily with power or hand tools but may cause some dulling of cutting edges. Planing, turning, shaping, routing and sanding all produce crisp detail. With figured crotch wood it is necessary to watch the direction of feed, in both thickness planers and jointers. Fasteners hold well with little tendency to split. Standard adhesives and stains go on uniformly. Wood is rated tough and hard with good steam bending qualities and little movement in service. Wood and sawdust of black walnut are known to cause irritation of the eyes, nose, skin and lungs, and may stimulate allergies and asthma – precautionary measures are advised… a good dust mask is essential.

Information about American White Oak

admin — Fri, 27 Nov 2009 20:53:03 +0000

American white oak
Latin name
Quercus spp.
Other Common names
Northern white oak, Southern white oak
Distribution
Widespread throughout Eastern USA. The white oak group comprises many species, of which about eight are commercial.
General Description
White oak is similar in colour and appearance to European oak. The sapwood of American white oak is light coloured and the heartwood is light to dark brown. White oak is mostly straight grained with a medium to coarse texture, with longer rays than red oak. White oak therefore has more figure.
Working Properties
White oak machines well, nails and screws well although pre-boring is advised. As it reacts with iron, galvanised nails are recommended. Its adhesive properties are variable, but it stains and polishes to a good finish. The wood dries slowly and care is needed to avoid checking. Due to its high shrinkage, it can be susceptible to movement in performance.
Physical Properties
A hard and heavy wood with medium bending and crushing strength, low in stiffness, but very good in steam bending. Southern white oak is faster grown with wide growth rings, and tends to be harder and heavier.
Durability
The heartwood is resistant to decay, extremely resistant to preservative treatment, and the sapwood is moderately resistant to treatment.
Availability
USA:
Readily available but not as abundant as red oak.

Export:
Very widely available in lumber and veneer, in a full range of qualities and specifications. The most important hardwood export.
Main Uses
Construction, furniture, flooring, architectural joinery, exterior joinery, mouldings, doors, kitchen cabinets, panelling, railway sleepers, timber bridges, barrel staves, coffins and caskets. White oak can vary in colour, texture, characteristics and properties according to the growing region. It is therefore recommended that users and specifiers work closely with their suppliers to make sure the wood they order is suited to their specific needs. Northern and Southern may be sold separately.

AKKA Furniture uses Danish Oil to give a quality finish

admin — Thu, 19 Nov 2009 23:58:37 +0000

Danish oil is made with nothing but the finest ingredients. The main component is Linseed Oil. This is blended with other high quality resins and oils, such as Tung oil, and is then mixed with a small amount of solvent to improve the drying time, performance and qualities of the danish oil.

What can Danish Oil be used on?
Danish oil is a very versatile product that can be used on any number of wood types, such as oak, pine, mahogany or beech and can be applied to any surface requiring an oil finish including; doors, garden furniture, kitchen worktops, food surfaces, childrens toys and hard of soft wood flooring. For decking it is recommended to use decking oil.

Why use Danish Oil?
When you apply a Varnish, Lacquer or paint onto wood it forms a protective film on the surface, which, if damaged or applied incorrectly can peel and flake. Danish oil however, penetrates into the surface grain and thereby keeps the wood supple whilst adding to its natural strength.

For maximum performance danish wood oil should be applied as at least 3-5 initial coats to your wooden surface, these will further improve the look and will continue to feed the wood keeping the surface water repellent. The frequency of subsequent coats depends on the density of the timber but as a guideline, further coats of danish oil should be applied about once a year.

Please note that although the product is manufactured by Morrells (or some times we sell Barrettine) it may sometimes be re-packaged and supplied under the Manns label due to it being decanted from a bigger container.

——————————————————————————–
Application
There are many ways to apply danish oil and no skill required. The most popular method is by cloth so that you can key in and wipe off the excess oil at the same time. A good quality paint brush is particularly useful when working with turned and moulded areas or when you need to apply a straight edge as with skirting boards. Danish wood oil is also compatible with virtually any type of spray equipment.

For a smooth, silky finish, lightly sand the danish oil between coats with very fine sandpaper or wire wool.

How a mattress is made

admin — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 15:55:50 +0000

Completing the mattress
• 5 The closing operation is of one of the most highly skilled and critical procedures in the entire process. It is done with a movable sewing head that is mounted on a track. Tape edge operators manually feed the top, bottom, and side panels and a heavy duty binding tape into the sewing machine as it moves around the mattress. As this combination of materials is fed into the machine, the operators uses their skill to feed the proper amount of each material into the machine to produce a professionally tailored product.
• 6 Some of the highest quality mattresses may also feature a pillowtop, a panel filled with soft upholstery and attached to the top and bottom panels of the mattress for a more luxurious feel and appearance. Prequilted, the pillowtop is then taped to the mattress.
Boxsprings
• 7 If the desired boxspring has a spiked coil design, it is made by stapling the bottom of each coil to a flat wooden frame. A wire grid is then placed on top of the springs and, once aligned, manually locked to them. A thin layer of upholstery is applied to the top. If the desired boxspring contains no springs,

Once the cover is quilted, it is cut into top, bottom, and side panels. Next, flanges are added, and hogs rings are stapled to them. Finally, in the closing operation, workers use a movable sewing head mounted on a track to feed the top, bottom, and side panels and a heavy duty binding tape into the sewing machine as it moves around the mattress. The mattress is then ready for packaging.
it consists of a wooden frame that may or may not have a layer of upholstery attached to its top. Regardless of the internal composition, the frame is usually inserted into a pre-sewn cover that encases the top and sides of the unit. A border fabric that matches the mattress exterior is applied to the sides, and a dust cover is added to the face.
Inspection, labeling, and packing
• 8 Once the units are complete, they are inspected for quality. If every thing is in order, they are labeled with the content and the contingent “do not remove” tag, required by law to ensure the consumer that the contents are properly represented in the labeling. The finished product is then transported to the packing area. Here it is inserted by hand or by automated machinery into protective plastic or paper covers. Additional information about the warranty, safety, and care of the product is also included in the packaging.

Seeing your home through new eyes

admin — Thu, 05 Nov 2009 12:44:24 +0000

When my wife and I moved into our house just around four years ago, we were full of good intentions. Every room needed decorating, we would finally buy co-ordinated furniture for each room. We would make sure we treated ourselves to new bedroom furniture from the akka range for ourselves and not just for customers. We would strip back the floors, re-tile the bathroom, put preserver on the shed and insulate the loft.

Did we do it all? Hell, no! We still have our old oak furniture and the same bed that we had in the last house, we even still have the coaster in the same place on the bedside table where I keep meaning to polish out the water mark that got left there when I put down a nice wet cup of tea on the top!

So, have we got lazy? Are we too busy to fix our house up the way we would like? Maybe both, but the chances are that we have just got used to living with things the way they are and we stop seeing how things could be different. For those of you who have seen, ‘It’s a Wonderful Life’ you’ll know how James Stewart never gets around to fixing the cap on the bottom wooden banister post which always comes away in his hand as he walks upstairs. We need to see things through a fresh set of eyes.

Why not download our room planner from the link on the home page and think about how you could see your home differently? Maybe it really is time to stop ignoring the fact that most of your clothes are piled up in awkward places because you don’t have the wardrobe you want. Or maybe it’s time to lose the formica topped tallboy that Aunty Maud lent you to ‘tide you over’ and replace it with something you really want.

Go on, take a look at your house now and see it through fresh eyes. Engage that imagination of yours and start thinking how great it would be to finally get that lovely walnut bed you always wanted!!

How a mattress is made

admin — Wed, 28 Oct 2009 17:03:25 +0000

Raw Materials
Mattresses are presently made of many materials, both natural and synthetic. The innerspring, helical, and boxspring components are made from wire; the boxspring wire is usually of a heavier gauge than that used in the innerspring. The insulator consists of semi-rigid netting or wire mesh, and the cushioning layers can comprise a number of different materials including natural fiber, polyurethane foam, and polyester. The flanges are made of fabric, and the hogs rings of metal. Top, bottom, and side panels consist of a durable fabric cover quilted over a backing of foam or fiber, and the binding

Once the completed innerspring unit is received, workers manually apply the insulator. Next, they apply the cushioning layers that will determine the feel and comfort of the final product. Meanwhile, the decorative cover that will serve as the exterior for the top, bottom, and sides is made on a giant quilting machine, which controls a multitude of needles that stitch the cover to a layer of backing material.
tape that holds the ticking together is made of heavy-duty, fibrous, synthetic material. The underlying boxspring may consist of either a wooden frame with slats or of metal coils similar to those used in the mattress itself. The boxspring may be upholstered, but, even if it is not, it always receives a fabric covering.
The Manufacturing
Process
Building mattress layers
• 1 Most mattress manufacturers subcontract the production of the innerspring unit to an outside firm that specializes in making springs. Once the completed spring unit is received and inspected, the workers manually apply the insulator. Next, they apply the cushioning layers that will determine the feel and comfort of the final product.
• 2 While the mattress is being “built up” in one part of the plant, the decorative cover that will serve as the exterior for the top, bottom and sides is being made in another part. Usually this cover is made on a giant quilting machine, which controls a multitude of needles that stitch the cover to a layer of backing material. The stitching chosen serves both useful and ornamental purposes, as it must prevent the mattress cover from slipping or creeping over the layers of cushioning in addition to creating a visually pleasing exterior.
• 3 Once the fabric is quilted, it is cut into panels that will fit the top and bottom of the mattress. The side panels are often cut from this same composite or made separately on a border machine. If side handles or vents are to be added, they are attached to the side panels before these are applied to the mattress.
Attaching the flanges
• 4 Specially modified sewing machines are used to attach the flanges to the top and bottom panels, and the hogs rings are stapled to the flanges. Everything is now ready for the closing operation, during which the hogs rings will be secured to the innerspring unit.